Inducibility of cytochrome P450-mediated 7-methoxycoumarin-O-demethylase activity in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos.

The zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo has increasingly been used as an alternative model in human and environmental toxicology. Since the cytochrome P450 (CYP) system is of fundamental importance for the understanding and correct interpretation of the outcome of toxicological studies, constitutive and xenobiotic-induced 7-methoxycoumarin-O-demethylase (MCOD), i.e. 'mammalian CYP2-like', activities were monitored in vivo in zebrafish embryos via confocal laser scanning microscopy. In order to elucidate molecular mechanisms underlying the MCOD induction, dose-dependent effects of the prototypical CYP inducers ß-naphthoflavone (aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonist), rifampicin (pregnane X receptor (PXR) agonist), carbamazepine and phenobarbital (constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) agonists) were analyzed in zebrafish embryos of varying age. Starting from 36 h of age, all embryonic stages of zebrafish could be shown to have constitutive MCOD activity, albeit with spatial variation and at distinct levels. Whereas carbamazepine, phenobarbital and rifampicin had no effect on in vivo MCOD activity in 96 h old zebrafish embryos, the model aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonist ß-naphthoflavone significantly induced MCOD activity in 96 h old zebrafish embryos at 46-734 nM, however, without a clear concentration-effect relationship. Induction of MCOD activity by ß-naphthoflavone gradually decreased with progression of embryonic development. By in vivo characterization of constitutive and xenobiotic-induced MCOD activity patterns in 36, 60, 84 and 108 h old zebrafish embryos, this decrease could primarily be attributed to an age-related decline in the induction of MCOD activity in the cardiovascular system. Results of this study provide novel insights into the mechanism and extent, by which specific CYP activities in early life-stages of zebrafish can be influenced by exposure to xenobiotics. The study thus lends further support to the view that zebrafish embryos- at least from an age of 36 h - have an elaborate and inducible biotransformation system.

Xenobiotica-metabolizing enzyme induction potential of chemicals in animal studies: NanoString nCounter gene expression and peptide group-specific immunoaffinity as accelerated and economical substitutions for enzyme activity determinations?

Xenobiotica-metabolizing enzyme (XME) induction is a relevant biological/biochemical process vital to understanding the toxicological profile of xenobiotics. Early recognition of XME induction potential of compounds under development is therefore important, yet its determination by traditional XME activity measurements is time consuming and cost intensive. A proof-of-principle study was therefore designed due to the advent of faster and less cost-intensive methods for determination of enzyme protein and transcript levels to determine whether two such methods may substitute for traditional measurement of XME activity determinations. The results of the study show that determination of enzyme protein levels by peptide group-specific immunoaffinity enrichment/MS and/or determination of gene expression by NanoString nCounter may serve as substitutes for traditional evaluation methodology and/or as an early predictor of potential changes in liver enzymes. In this study, changes of XME activity by the known standard XME inducers phenobarbital, beta-naphthoflavone and Aroclor 1254 were demonstrated by these two methods. To investigate the applicability of these methods to demonstrate XME-inducing activity of an unknown, TS was also examined and found to be an XME inducer. More specifically, TS was found to be a phenobarbital-type inducer (likely mediated by CAR rather than PXR as nuclear receptor), but not due to Ah receptor-mediated or antioxidant response element-mediated beta-naphthoflavone-type induction. The results for TS were confirmed via enzymatic activity measurements. The results of the present study demonstrate the potential applicability of NanoString nCounter mRNA quantitation and peptide group-specific immunoaffinity enrichment/MS protein quantitation for predicting compounds under development to be inducers of liver XME activity.

CRISPR-Cas9-Mutated Pregnane X Receptor (pxr) Retains Pregnenolone-induced Expression of cyp3a65 in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Larvae.

Pregnane X receptor (PXR; NR1I2) is a nuclear receptor that regulates transcriptional responses to drug or xenobiotic exposure, including induction of CYP3A transcription, in many vertebrate species. PXR is activated by a wide range of ligands that differ across species, making functional studies on its role in the chemical defensome most relevant when approached in a species-specific manner. Knockout studies in mammals have shown a requirement for PXR in ligand-dependent activation of CYP3A expression or reporter gene activity. Morpholino knockdown of Pxr in zebrafish indicated a similar requirement. Here, we report on the generation of 2 zebrafish lines each carrying a heritable deletion in the pxr coding region, predicted to result in loss of a functional gene product. To our surprise, larvae homozygous for either of the pxr mutant alleles retain their ability to induce cyp3a65 mRNA expression following exposure to the established zebrafish Pxr ligand, pregnenolone. Thus, zebrafish carrying pxr alleles with deletions in either the DNA binding or the ligand-binding domains did not yield a loss-of-function phenotype, suggesting that a compensatory mechanism is responsible for cyp3a65 induction. Alternative possibilities are that Pxr is not required for the induction of selected genes, or that truncated yet functional mutant Pxr is sufficient for the downstream transcriptional effects. It is crucial that we develop a better understanding for the role of Pxr in this important biomedical test species. This study highlights the potential for compensatory mechanisms to avoid deleterious effects arising from gene mutations.

Effects of bisphenol A (BPA) on brain-specific expression of cyp19a1b gene in swim-up fry of Labeo rohita.

Estrogen regulates numerous developmental and physiological processes and effects are mediated mainly by estrogenic receptors (ERs), which function as ligand-regulated transcription factor. ERs can be activated by many different types endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and interfere with behaviour and reproductive potential of living organism. Estrogenic regulation of membrane associated G protein-coupled estrogen receptor, GPER activity has also been reported. Bisphenol A (BPA), a ubiquitous endocrine disruptor is present in many household products, has been linked to many adverse effect on sexual development and reproductive potential of wild life species. The present work is aimed to elucidate how an environmentally pervasive chemical BPA affects in vivo expression of a known estrogen target gene, cyp19a1b in the brain, and a known estrogenic biomarker, vitellogenin (Vg) in the whole body homogenate of 30 days post fertilization (dpf) swim-up fry of Labeo rohita. We confirm that, like estrogen, the xenoestrogen BPA exposure for 5-15 days induces strong overexpression of cyp19a1b, but not cyp19a1a mRNA in the brain and increase concentration of vitellogenin in swim-up fry. BPA also induces strong overexpression of aromatase B protein and aromatase activity in brain. Experiments using selective modulators of classical ERs and GPER argue that this induction is largely through nuclear ERs, not through GPER. Thus, BPA has the potential to elevate the levels of aromatase and thereby, levels of endogenous estrogen in developing brain. These results indicate that L. rohita swim-up fry can be used to detect environmental endocrine disruptors either using cyp19a1b gene expression or vitellogenin induction.

Toxicological effects of trichlorfon on hematological and biochemical parameters in Cyprinus carpio L. following thermal stress.

Trichlorfon is a moderately toxic organophosphate pesticide that is widely used in aquaculture. This study investigated the effects of trichlorfon on hematological parameters, biochemical factors, and stress reaction in Cyprinus carpio L. The fish were exposed to acute concentrations of trichlorfon (0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 mg L-1) at 25 °C and 15 °C for 1 and 2 weeks, after which several parameters were evaluated to assess the effects of the pesticide. Significant decreases were observed in red blood cell (RBC) Count, hemoglobin (Hb) level, hematocrit (Ht), and plasma protein levels after each exposure period. In contrast, notable increases in mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean cell hemoglobin (MCH), calcium, and glucose levels were observed in the trichlorfon-treated groups. Additionally, there were significant increases in the plasma levels of glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT), glutamate-pyruvate transaminase (GPT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) following the exposure to trichlorfon. Furthermore, the results showed a relationship between toxic stress and increment in HSP70 and cytochrome P450 1A (CYP1A) expression over time. Ht, MCV, MCH, and the value of other biochemical parameters were quite lower at 15 °C than their corresponding values were at 25 °C, which indicated the decreased physical activity at 15 °C. The results of the present work indicate that acute exposure to trichlorfon and thermal stimulus could damage erythropoietic tissue. Additionally, hepatocytes function and physiological mechanisms could be impaired. Ht, glucose, GOT, GPT, HSP70, and CYP1A levels might be useful biomarkers of trichlorfon toxicity in contaminated aquatic ecosystems.

Influences of acephate and mixtures with other commonly used pesticides on honey bee (Apis mellifera) survival and detoxification enzyme activities.

Acephate (organophosphate) is frequently used to control piercing/sucking insects in field crops in southern United States, which may pose a risk to honey bees. In this study, toxicity of acephate (formulation Bracket®97) was examined in honey bees through feeding treatments with sublethal (pollen residue level: 0.168 mg/L) and median-lethal (LC50: 6.97 mg/L) concentrations. Results indicated that adult bees treated with acephate at residue concentration did not show significant increase in mortality, but esterase activity was significantly suppressed. Similarly, bees treated with binary mixtures of acephate with six formulated pesticides (all at residue dose) consistently showed lower esterase activity and body weight. Clothianidin, λ-cyhalothrin, oxamyl, tetraconazole, and chlorpyrifos may interact with acephate significantly to reduce body weight in treated bees. The dose response data (LC50: 6.97 mg/L) revealed a relatively higher tolerance to acephate in Stoneville bee population (USA) than populations elsewhere, although in general the population is still very sensitive to the organophosphate. In addition to killing 50% of the treated bees acephate (6.97 mg/L) inhibited 79.9%, 20.4%, and 29.4% of esterase, Glutathione S-transferase (GST), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities, respectively, in survivors after feeding treatment for 48 h. However, P450 activity was elevated 20% in bees exposed to acephate for 48 h. Even though feeding on sublethal acephate did not kill honey bees directly, chronic toxicity to honey bee was noticeable in body weight loss and esterase suppression, and its potential risk of synergistic interactions with other formulated pesticides should not be ignored.

Erectile Dysfunction Drugs Changed the Protein Expressions and Activities of Drug-Metabolising Enzymes in the Liver of Male Rats.

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is a major health problem and is mainly associated with the persistent inability of men to maintain sufficient erection for satisfactory sexual performance. Millions of men are using sildenafil, vardenafil, and/or tadalafil for ED treatment. Cytochrome P450s (CYPs) play a central role in the metabolism of a wide range of xenobiotics as well as endogenous compounds. Susceptibility of individuals to the adverse effects of different drugs is mainly dependent on the expression of CYPs proteins. Therefore, changes in activities of phase I drug-metabolising enzymes [arylhydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH), dimethylnitrosamine N-demethylase (DMN-dI), 7-ethoxycoumarin-O-deethylase (ECOD), and ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase ((EROD)] and the protein expression of different CYPs isozymes (CYP1A2, CYP2E1, CYP2B1/2, CYP3A4, CYP2C23, and CYP2C6) were determined after treatment of male rats with either low or high doses of sildenafil (Viagra), tadalafil (Cialis), and/or vardenafil (Levitra) for 3 weeks. The present study showed that low doses of tadalafil and vardenafil increased DMN-dI activity by 32 and 23%, respectively. On the other hand, high doses of tadalafil, vardenafil, and sildenafil decreased such activity by 50, 56, and 52%, respectively. In addition, low doses of tadalafil and vardenafil induced the protein expression of CYP2E1. On the other hand, high doses of either tadalafil or sildenafil were more potent inhibitors to CYP2E1 expression than vardenafil. Moreover, low doses of both vardenafil and sildenafil markedly increased AHH activity by 162 and 247%, respectively, whereas high doses of tadalafil, vardenafil, and sildenafil inhibited such activity by 36, 49, and 57% and inhibited the EROD activity by 39, 49, and 33%, respectively. Low and high doses of tadalafil, vardenafil, and sildenafil inhibited the activity of NADPH-cytochrome c reductase as well as its protein expression. In addition, such drugs inhibited the expression of CYP B1/2 along with its corresponding enzyme marker ECOD activity. It is concluded that changes in the expression and activity of phase I drug-metabolising enzymes could change the normal metabolic pathways and might enhance the deleterious effects of exogenous as well as endogenous compounds.

The effect of dietary lipid composition on the intestinal uptake and tissue distribution of benzo[a]pyrene and phenanthrene in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

Uptake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) across the intestine is suggested to occur in association with dietary lipids. Partial replacement of fish ingredients by vegetable ingredients in aquafeeds has led to increased levels of PAHs in marine farmed fish. We therefore investigated, intestinal uptake, tissue distribution and PAH metabolism after a single dose of (14)C-benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) or (14)C-phenanthrene (PHE) given to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) acclimatized to a fish oil or vegetable oil based diet. Both BaP and PHE were absorbed along the intestine. Fish oil based feed increased BaP concentration in the pyloric caeca and that of PHE in the proximal intestine. In contrast, vegetable oil increased BaP concentrations in the distal intestine. Extraction of whole body autoradiograms removed PHE-associated radiolabeling almost completely from the intestinal mucosa, but not BaP-associated radiolabeling, indicating the presence of BaP metabolites bound to cellular macromolecules. This observation correlates with the increased cyp1a expression in the proximal intestine, distal intestine and liver in the BaP exposed group. Furthermore, BaP-induced cyp1a expression was higher in the distal intestine of salmon fed fish oil compared to the vegetable oil fed group. PHE had no significant effect on cyp1a expression in any of these tissues. We conclude that dietary lipid composition affects intestinal PAH uptake. Fish oil based feed increased intestinal PAH concentrations probably due to an enhanced solubility in micelles composed of fish oil fatty acids. Increased BaP accumulation in the distal intestine of vegetable oil fed fish seems to be associated with a reduced Cyp1a-mediated BaP metabolism.

Carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons induce CYP1A1 in human cells via a p53-dependent mechanism.

The tumour suppressor gene TP53 is mutated in more than 50 % of human tumours, making it one of the most important cancer genes. We have investigated the role of TP53 in cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated metabolic activation of three polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a panel of isogenic colorectal HCT116 cells with differing TP53 status. Cells that were TP53(+/+), TP53(+/-), TP53(-/-), TP53(R248W/+) or TP53(R248W/-) were treated with benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), dibenz[a,h]anthracene and dibenzo[a,l]pyrene, and the formation of DNA adducts was measured by (32)P-postlabelling analysis. Each PAH formed significantly higher DNA adduct levels in TP53(+/+) cells than in the other cell lines. There were also significantly lower levels of PAH metabolites in the culture media of these other cell lines. Bypass of the need for metabolic activation by treating cells with the corresponding reactive PAH-diol-epoxide metabolites resulted in similar adduct levels in all cell lines, which confirms that the influence of p53 is on the metabolism of the parent PAHs. Western blotting showed that CYP1A1 protein expression was induced to much greater extent in TP53(+/+) cells than in the other cell lines. CYP1A1 is inducible via the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), but we did not find that expression of AHR was dependent on p53; rather, we found that BaP-induced CYP1A1 expression was regulated through p53 binding to a p53 response element in the CYP1A1 promoter region, thereby enhancing its transcription. This study demonstrates a new pathway for CYP1A1 induction by environmental PAHs and reveals an emerging role for p53 in xenobiotic metabolism.

Toxicity and cytochrome P450 1A mRNA induction by 6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ) in chicken and Japanese quail embryos.

The tryptophan derivative formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ) binds with high ligand affinity to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and is readily degraded by AHR-regulated cytochrome P450 family 1 (CYP1) enzymes. Whether in vivo exposure to FICZ can result in toxic effects has not been examined and the main objective of this study was to determine if FICZ is embryotoxic in birds. We examined toxicity and CYP1 mRNA induction of FICZ in embryos from chicken (Gallus domesticus) and Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) exposed to FICZ (2-200µgkg(-1)) by yolk and air sac injections. FICZ caused liver toxicity, embryo mortality, and CYP1A4 and CYP1A5 induction in both species with similar potency. This is in stark contrast to the very large difference in sensitivity of these species to halogenated AHR agonists. We also exposed chicken embryos to a low dose of FICZ (4µgkg(-1)) in combination with a CYP inhibitor, ketoconazole (KCZ). The mixture of FICZ and KCZ was lethal while FICZ alone had no effect at 4µgkg(-1). Furthermore, mixed exposure to FICZ and KCZ caused stronger and more long-lasting hepatic CYP1A4 induction than exposure to each compound alone. These findings indicate reduced biotransformation of FICZ by co-treatment with KCZ as a cause for the enhanced effects although additive AHR activation is also possible. To conclude, FICZ is toxic to bird embryos and it seems reasonable that the toxicity by FICZ involves AHR activation. However, the molecular targets and biological events leading to hepatic damage and mortality are unknown.

Developmental toxicity of hexachloronaphthalene in Wistar rats. A role of CYP1A1 expression.

Hexachloronaphthalene (HxCN) is one of the most toxic congeners of polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs). This study assesses the prenatal toxicity of HxCN after daily administration at doses of 0.1-1.0mg/kg b.w. to pregnant Wistar rats during organogenesis. We evaluated also the expression of CYP1A1 mRNA and protein in the livers of dams and fetuses, as well as the placenta. The results indicate that 0.3mg/kg b.w. was the lowest HxCN toxic dose for dams (LOAEL) while a dose of 0.1mg/kg b.w. was sufficient to impair the intrauterine development of embryos/fetuses without maternal toxicity. Regardless of the applied dose, HxCN generated embryotoxic effects. Dose-dependent fetotoxic effects were associated with HxCN exposure. HxCN was found to be a strong inducer of maternal and fetal CYP1A1. Expression of CYP1A1 mRNA in the placenta appears to be the most sensitive marker of HxCN exposure.

Impact of inhalational exposure to ethanol fuel on the pharmacokinetics of verapamil, ibuprofen and fluoxetine as in vivo probe drugs for CYP3A, CYP2C and CYP2D in rats.

Occupational toxicology and clinical pharmacology integration will be useful to understand potential exposure-drug interaction and to shape risk assessment strategies in order to improve occupational health. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of exposure to ethanol fuel on in vivo activities of cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzymes CYP3A, CYP2C and CYP2D by the oral administration of the probe drugs verapamil, ibuprofen and fluoxetine. Male Wistar rats exposed to filtered air or to 2000 ppm ethanol in a nose-only inhalation chamber during (6 h/day, 5 days/week, 6 weeks) received single oral doses of 10 mg/kg verapamil or 25 mg/kg ibuprofen or 10 mg/kg fluoxetine. The enantiomers of verapamil, norverapamil, ibuprofen and fluoxetine in plasma were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. The area under the curve plasma concentration versus time extrapolated to infinity (AUC(0-∞)) was calculated using the Gauss-Laguerre quadrature. Inhalation exposure to ethanol reduces the AUC of both verapamil (approximately 2.7 fold) and norverapamil enantiomers (>2.5 fold), reduces the AUC(0-∞) of (+)-(S)-IBU (approximately 2 fold) and inhibits preferentially the metabolism of (-)-(R)-FLU. In conclusion, inhalation exposure of ethanol at a concentration of 2 TLV-STEL (6 h/day for 6 weeks) induces CYP3A and CYP2C but inhibits CYP2D in rats.

Fipronil induces CYP isoforms in rats.

The goal of the present study was to evaluate fipronil effects on the activities of drug metabolizing enzymes in rat liver microsomes. Rats were orally treated with fipronil at doses of 1, 5, 10 and 15 mg/kg bw/day for 6 days. Determinations of cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme activities were carried out in hepatic microsomes isolated from treated rats. The activities of some members of CYP2E, CYP1A, CYP2A, CYP2B and CYP3A subfamilies significantly increased after fipronil treatment in a dose-dependent manner as compared to control. The major effects were observed in the O-deethylation of ethoxyresorufin and O-demethylation of methoxyresorufin (reflecting CYP1A1/2 activities), in the O-depenthylation of pentoxyresorufin and 16ß-hydroxylation of testosterone (reflecting CYP2B1/2 activities), and in the N-demethylation of erythromycin and 6ß-hydroxylation of testosterone (reflecting CYP3A1/2 activities). Immunoblot studies revealed that fipronil increased the apoprotein levels of CYP1A1. Our results suggest that fipronil is an inducer of hepatic phase I CYP enzymes, causing an increased potential to interact with a wide range of xenobiotics or endogenous chemicals that are substrates of the CYP1A, CYP2B and CYP3A subfamilies. Further investigations are required to in vivo evaluate the potential of the metabolite fipronil sulfone as an inducer of phase I CYP enzymes.

Enhanced thyroid hormone breakdown in hepatocytes by mutual induction of the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR, NR1I3) and arylhydrocarbon receptor by benzo[a]pyrene and phenobarbital.

Xenobiotics may interfere with the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid endocrine axis by inducing enzymes that inactivate thyroid hormones and thereby reduce the metabolic rate. This induction results from an activation of xeno-sensing nuclear receptors. The current study shows that benzo[a]pyrene, a frequent contaminant of processed food and activator of the arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activated the promoter and induced the transcription of the nuclear receptor constitutive androstane receptor (CAR, NR1I3) in rat hepatocytes. Likewise, phenobarbital induced the AhR transcription. This mutual induction of the nuclear receptors enhanced the phenobarbital-dependent induction of the prototypic CAR target gene Cyp2b1 as well as the AhR-dependent induction of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases. In both cases, the induction by the combination of both xenobiotics was more than the sum of the induction by either substance alone. By inducing the AhR, phenobarbital enhanced the benzo[a]pyrene-dependent reduction of thyroid hormone half-life and the benzo[a]pyrene-dependent increase in the rate of thyroid hormone glucuronide formation in hepatocyte cultures. CAR ligands might thus augment the endocrine disrupting potential of AhR activators by an induction of the AhR.

EROD activity and cytochrome P4501A induction in liver and gills of Senegal sole Solea senegalensis from a polluted Huelva estuary (SW Spain).

EROD activity and induction cytochrome P4501A in liver and gills of Senegal sole, Solea senegalensis, from a heavy metal and PAH polluted estuary, was studied. Liver and gill CYP1A catalytic activity was assessed at the enzyme activity level-measured as 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase and cellular localization of CYP1A in the liver was studied using immunohistochemistry. Liver EROD was correlated with phenanthrene-type metabolites in liver and copper concentrations in water. Strong CYP1A occurrence was observed in acinar pancreatic cells, pancreatic duct epithelium and vascular system endothelium and negative/rare induction were observed in hepatocytes and sinusoidal endothelium. In gills, EROD activity showed a significant correlation with different fractions of heavy metals in sediment but no correlation was observed between EROD activity and PAHs. Strongly positive CYP1A associated staining of the vascular system endothelia and primary filament cells and a moderate staining of pillar cells in gills were observed. The results substantiated the utility of EROD activity and CYP1A induction measurement as biomarkers for use by aquatic toxicologists and indicate that catalytic assays and immunohistochemical assays appear to be sensitive to different kinds of pollutants being the use of both methods recommended for monitoring programs.

Stimulation of estradiol biosynthesis by tributyltin in rat hippocampal slices.

Hippocampal functions are influenced by steroid hormones, such as testosterone and estradiol. It has been demonstrated that hippocampus-derived steroid hormones play important roles in neuronal protection and synapse formation. Our research groups have demonstrated that estradiol is de novo synthesized in the rat hippocampus. However, the mechanism(s) regulating this synthesis remains unclear. It has been reported that tributyltin, an environmental pollutant, binds to the retinoid X receptor (RXR) and modifies estrogen synthesis in human granulosa-like tumor cells. This compound can penetrate the blood brain barrier, and tends to accumulate in the brain. Based on these facts, we hypothesized that tributyltin could influence the hippocampal estradiol synthesis. A concentration of 0.1 µM tributyltin induced an increase in the mRNA content of P450(17α) and P450arom in hippocampal slices, as determined using real-time PCR. The transcript levels of other steroidogenic enzymes and a steroidogenic acute regulatory protein were not affected. The estradiol level in rat hippocampal slices was subsequently determined using a radioimmunoassay. We found that the estradiol synthesis was stimulated by ∼2-fold following a 48-h treatment with 0.1 µM tributyltin, and this was accompanied by transcriptional activation of P450(17α) and P450arom. Tributyltin stimulated de novo hippocampal estradiol synthesis by modifying the transcription of specific steroidogenic enzymes.